How to say family tree in german

his character). These words are necessary in any situation of our life.

Distribution and development of languages.

Language families

Beginning in the 18th century, when relationships between the Indo-European languages ​​were discovered, languages ​​began to be classified in the form of a genealogical tree, in which the origin of languages ​​is depicted schematically, as in a human family tree. For example, an incomplete genealogical tree of the Indo-European languages ​​can be used to illustrate the extent to which English is related to neighboring European languages ​​(see part two for a complete family tree).
It can be clearly seen that English and German are "brothers", they have a common father, while English and French are just "cousins", descending from the same common ancestor (Indo-European language), but having different parents. Such a classification is made by finding related words in various languages, such as the English word mother ("mother") and the German word Mutter, the French mere and the Italian madre.
Pronouns, numerals, names of parts of the body, and terms used to denote close kinship play an important role in compiling classifications of language families, since these elements are least likely to change and are borrowed from other languages. A striking example of the long life of such a term is the Romanian word nepot ("nephew"), which has exactly the same form as the reconstructed Indo-European root *nepot- (as in the word "nepotism"): for 5-6 thousand years that have passed since the Indo-European languages ​​split, the root of the word has not changed much. For a more thorough comparison of various language groups, the most ancient written monuments representing each language family are usually taken: the Gothic language of the 14th century is a Germanic branch; Latin - Romanesque branch; ancient Church Slavonic - Slavic branch, etc. Such languages ​​are often preserved as ecclesiastical languages, such as Latin, in which liturgies were celebrated in all the churches of medieval Europe, or Sanskrit, which is the official language of worship in India.

Sanskrit, one of the ancient languages ​​of India, is now used only as a language of worship. It is the oldest known language of the Indian branch of the Indo-European languages. It is the language of the religion of the Hindus; a number of scientific and philosophical works have been written in Sanskrit.

This incomplete genealogical tree of the Indo-European languages ​​clearly shows the relationship of neighboring European languages.
The family tree scheme developed for the classification of Indo-European languages ​​is applicable to other language families. However, languages ​​do not exist in a vacuum, but continue to interact with related languages ​​after they are separated into independent branches. This process cannot be reflected with the help of a family tree: for example, the Celtic and Italic families have more in common than a very simplified family tree diagram would suggest. At the other extreme, the description of Southeast Asian language families was more like a thicket than a tree. It has also been found that certain languages ​​do not belong to any language family, as they are not passed down from generation to generation like regular languages.
Texts in German first appear as early as the eighth century. Early texts, such as this sixteenth-century legal notice, were written in Gothic
Creole languages, formed by the unexpected interaction of several languages, are a clear example of this: the vocabulary of these languages ​​\u200b\u200bcan come from a European language, while grammar develops on its own with a slight push from the side of source languages ​​(see part two, chapter 7). "Mixed languages" do exist; Michif, spoken in Quebec, combines elements of French and Algonquian Cree, while in the Aleut language spoken on Copper Island, Eski-Mosso-Aleut verbs acquire Russian inflections. And even Japanese can be classified as a "mixed language" of this type, since it combines elements of Altaic and Austronesian languages ​​(see Part Two, Chapter 1).

Reconstruction of parent languages ​​

Classifying and comparing different language families among themselves helps to reconstruct some elements of the parent language from which these languages ​​originated. The reconstruction process begins with the identification of the corresponding words in related languages, such as, for example, words denoting "five" in various Germanic languages:

English Gothic Dutch German Norwegian
FIMF FIJV Funf Fem

Endings offer us both a nasal consonant ({n} in German, {m} in Gothic and Norwegian) and a labiovelar ({v} in English, {f} in German and Norwegian). This allows us to reconstruct the Proto-Germanic root *finv- or *fenv- (the asterisk indicates that the given root has been reconstructed). Based on the knowledge of how the sounds of different languages ​​\u200b\u200bcorrelate (the German sound f in other languages ​​\u200b\u200bcorresponds to the sound p, which was the result of the first Germanic movement of consonants, called Grimm's law), the Proto-Indo-European form *penkwe ("five") was restored. Using this method, it is possible to reconstruct what inflections looked like in the Indo-European proto-language, and even to reconstruct its syntax. The developed case system of the early classical languages ​​​​(and archaic Indo-European languages, such as Lithuanian) suggests that the Indo-European language had approximately eight cases of nouns: nominative, vocative, accusative, dative, genitive, instrumental, ablative and locative In the case of the Indo-European languages, the texts in Sanskrit, Greek and Latin give us intermediate forms between the proto-language and modern forms, while in other language families there are no such obvious examples , and reconstruction, respectively, tr fucks more hard work.

ENGLISH AND THE INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES

A comparison of some of the numerals and terms of consanguinity in the four European languages ​​provides a visual representation of the relationship between the various Indo-European languages.

English Italian Russian Hungarian
One Uno one egy (Ed)
Two Due two Ket
Three Tre TREE HDROM
Mother Madre Mother Apua
Brother Fratello brother Testver (teshtvnuer)
Sister sore/la Sister Nover

is notable for some sounds of different languages ​​in their pronunciation: for example, the English sound T in the word "TWO", which is in Russian and Russian and Russian the corresponding sound in Italian is d (both are alveolar plosives). This correspondence is regular: the Italian t in English in the words "three" and "brother" corresponds to the sound th. Hungarian words do not share this similarity: Hungarian, although surrounded by Indo-European languages, belongs to the Uralic language family, along with languages ​​such as Finnish and Estonian.

"SHEPEL AND HORSES": A PROTO-INDEUROPEAN FABLE Schleicher in the reconstructed Indo-European parent language. A later version of this text, owned by the linguists Leman and Zguste, is as follows: G'erei owis, k'esyo wlhna ne est, ekwons espeket, oinom ghe g'rum woghom hill-on a sheep whose wool does not exist horses saw, one heavy wagon "A sheep that had no wool on it noticed several horses on a hill, one of which was pulling a heavy wagon," weghontm, oinom-kwe megam bhorom, oinom-kwe ghmenm oku bherontm. dragging, one is also a large load one is also a person quickly carrying "the other was dragging a large load, and the third was quickly carrying the rider." Oms nu ekwomos ewewk'et: "Kör aghnutoi to/ekwons agontm nerm widentei. " the sheep now horse-k said: "my heart hurts horses driven by a man to see." The sheep said to the horses: "My heart breaks when I see a man driving horses."

Ek'wos tu ewewk'ont: "Kludhi, owei, ker ghe aghnutoi nsmei widntmos: ner, potis, then the horses said, "Listen sheep, our heart hurts when we see the owner of the man" "The horses said: "Listen, sheep, our hearts are torn when we see that the person is the master," owiom r wlhna t sebhigwermom westrom k'rneuti. Neghi owiom wlhna esti." sheep's wool he makes warm clothes for himself And-no, he eats wool from sheep "sews warm clothes for himself from sheep's wool. And the sheep has no wool."

Tod kekluwos owls agrom ebhuget. hearing this, the sheep ran away into the field." the English word "ewe" ("sheep"), wlh-na, "wool" (English "wool"), e-speket, "to see" (compare with the English word "inspect" (to examine, inspect), oin-om, "one" (English "one"), moi "my" (English "those") and bher-ontm "bearing" (English word "bearing"). 0003

Many reconstructed forms resemble Latin (ovis, "sheep", equus, "horse") or Greek (mega, "very large", apeg, "man"). These languages ​​are closer to the Proto-Indo-European language, which, as shown in the table, was spoken around 2500 BC.
Reconstruction of the syntax of the Proto-Indo-European language showed that it belongs to the SOV languages, which also resembles classical Latin. And despite the fact that it is now believed that the linguistic reconstruction of the proto-language is based too heavily on Sanskrit, and besides it seems very unlikely that the Indo-Europeans had already tamed horses in those ancient times, nevertheless this fable contributes to the revival of the method of reconstruction.

A broad classification of languages ​​

Recently there has been renewed controversy around the classification of the languages ​​of the world and around the problem of the limits to which it can be carried. For many years it was considered that the existence of some language families, such as the Indo-European or Uralic languages, was unconditionally recognized by scientists, while the existence of other families, such as the Ural-Altaic or Austrian, was in doubt. It was widely believed that there was not enough data for the classification to consider these language families in all temporal depth.
Recently, however, interest in the distant relationship of languages ​​has increased again. Joseph Greenberg, who in his early writings distinguished four African language families, made a rather controversial attempt to group the Indian languages ​​of America into three large families, corresponding to three successive waves of population migration: Amerindian, Na-Dene, and Eskimo-Aleut. The Na-Dene languages ​​spoken in America may be related to Sino-Tibetan and even Caucasian languages. Greenberg also proposed to single out an extensive Eurasian family, seeing a distant relationship between the Indo-European, Uralic and Altaic language families. Elements of the main vocabulary of these languages, such as the pronouns te ("I") and te ("you"), which are often found in Indo-European, Uralic languages, and other similar words, are capable, according to some linguists, of providing scientists with data confirming this theory. Such coincidences, which go beyond the established language groups, may indicate distant kinship between languages.

And finally, for some words, in particular, for the names of body parts or terms denoting consanguinity, the so-called "general etymology" was proposed, dating back to a single "world parent language". So, for example, it is believed that the origin of the English words "one" ("one") and "finger" ("finger") comes from the root of the parent language tik (traces of which remained in the word "digital" ("finger-shaped"). There were also some grammatical elements of the proto-language have been found, such as the question words kin ("who?") and min ("what?") (see figure above).0228 Skeptics offer another possible explanation for this similarity. Some sounds carry a symbolic load: for example, the ubiquitous use of nasal sounds in words expressing negation may be determined by an innate, natural association embedded in the human mind, and the mi (n) model could independently arise in different languages ​​for similar reasons, perhaps its the appearance was due to the ordinary reflex opening of the mouth. Another difficulty lies in proving whether the similarity of certain roots is the result of their genetic relationship or later borrowings. Finally, it must be demonstrated that the similarities between such elements are more pronounced than could happen if they arose by pure chance. Given all these difficulties, it seems unlikely that the existence of such hypothetical macrofamilies as Amerindian or Eurasian will be officially recognized or, on the contrary, refuted solely on linguistic criteria. The problem of classification of languages ​​is gradually moving beyond the scope of one discipline. Attempts are being made to combine linguistic classifications with archaeological data, with genetic and anatomical analysis of representatives of various nationalities. Of course, racial and linguistic boundaries do not always coincide. However, broad linguistic classifications, as a rule, correlate both with population genetics and with archaeological data on the settlement of various peoples of the world. Archaeological finds, in particular, show that America could have been inhabited only 12,000 years ago by peoples from Eurasia, which makes the hypothesis of American language families and their kinship with the Sino-Tibetan languages ​​quite probable.

Language contacts

No language exists in a vacuum: even territorially isolated languages ​​like Basque in the Iberian Peninsula and Burushaski in the Himalayas are influenced by neighboring languages. And although English and French are distant relatives in the language tree of the Indo-European family of languages, contact between them, continuing over many centuries, has led to the fact that the vocabulary of both languages ​​contains much in common. Similarly, Chinese and Japanese are not related by the same origin, but are intermarried through numerous cultural ties that have resulted in Japanese borrowing much of its vocabulary from Chinese, along with the Chinese writing system.
The Norman conquest of England in 1066, depicted in the Boillot tapestry, marked the beginning of almost a thousand years of close contact between the English and French peoples, which had a strong influence on the lexical composition of both languages.
Language contacts take on different forms, the understanding of which is becoming deeper and more complete in recent studies. In particular, borrowings occur when language contact is made for trade purposes or in the case of bilingualism. Language switching occurs when speakers of one language are forced to speak a foreign language for several generations. Borrowing affects primarily the vocabulary of the language, while bilingualism can have a stronger effect on the structure of the language and often leaves obvious traces in its grammar.

Bilingualism and multilingualism

About half of the world's population is estimated to be either bilingual or multilingual. And while bilingualism seems relatively uncommon in places like France, Britain, and the United States, it is the norm in many parts of the world—Thailand, for example, is home to some eighty languages. In areas such as India, West Africa, and Papua New Guinea, residents usually have both a local, regional and colonial language: for example, in Cameroon, the majority of the population speaks two or even more African languages, and educated people also speak French.

CODE MIXING

Code mixing Switching from one system of language codes to another is a characteristic feature of bilingual communities and individuals. A mixture of Spanish and English is common in Hispanic communities in North America: the examples given are quite typical, "...those friends are friends from Mexico (English) que tienen chamaquitos (Spanish)" ["...these friends are those friends from Mexico who have small children"] "All of sudden I started acting real curiosa (Spanish), you know" ["You know, suddenly I started acting very strange"]
Such linguistic confusion is not due to linguistic necessity, when the speaker cannot find the right words in his native language, but occurs due to the equivalence of both languages.
In Hong Kong, where most of the population is fluent in both English and Cantonese, she characteristically mixes both languages, which makes her more or less a bilingual speaker.
Such linguistic confusion can also be found in texts written in Cantonese, as, for example, in the novel Diary of a Yuppie. The text uses English names (Angle, "Angie"), adjectives (happy, "happy") and partially learned idioms (in another word instead of in other words, "in other words"). The letter D is used to represent the word dl, which means "a little bit" in Cantonese, and the colloquial verb mit, "to tear," which has no corresponding character in standard Chinese, is written phonetically.

A facsimile of a page from the popular novel Diary of a Yuppie clearly illustrates the mixing of English and Cantonese Chinese.

Contact between speakers of different languages, for example, in a multi-ethnic society such as the United States, can lead to the penetration of foreign, borrowed words into the main language.
This does not always lead to language conflict, as the example of countries such as Switzerland and Thailand show, where different languages ​​coexist in peace and harmony.
While bilingualism is generally considered a disadvantage, linguists have gathered evidence that, in addition to the obvious practical benefits of being able to communicate with a wider range of cultures, bilingualism also has some cognitive benefits. It certainly deepens the understanding of language: thus, bilingual children realize that the names we give things are mostly arbitrary, so that "horse" could just as well be called "dog", etc. Bilingual education is considered an important means of promoting cultural integration, while at the same time preserving the use of minor languages ​​and the cultural traditions associated with them. For these and many other reasons, linguists are unanimously in favor of bilingual education and oppose legislative policies that attempt to impose monolingualism, such as laws requiring the use of English in the workplace.

Borrowings and borrowed words.

All types of language contacts lead to an increase in the number of borrowed words - foreign words adapted and included in the vocabulary of the borrowing language. There are many loanwords in the English language that reflect areas of cultural influence, as is the case with the French word cuisine ("kitchen, culinary art") or the word zero ("zero"), which came from Arabic mathematics. Expressions such as "lose face" ("lose prestige, face") and "long time no see!" ("long time no see!") are tracing-papers from the Chinese language, resulting from the literal translation into English of each part of the corresponding Chinese expressions.
While the introduction of borrowings into the English language has long been welcomed and continues to be welcomed, many languages ​​reject borrowings, believing that they threaten their purity. The purity of the French language is monitored by the French Academy, and the French government has introduced a law prohibiting the use of English words (the so-called "French" words) in the official media.

BORROWING GASTRONOMIC TERMS

Food names are among the fastest borrowing terms, due in part to food fashion and prestige. The Norman Conquest of England introduced words such as "pork" ("pork") and "beef" ("beef"), which supplanted the Germanic words. Many loanwords have been assimilated to the point where their foreign origin is not felt by native speakers. The meaning of the word "hamburger" (German: "[sausage] from Hamburg") was reinterpreted as a fusion of the words "ham" ("ham") and "burger", giving rise to neoplasms such as "cheeseburger". In addition to hundreds of French borrowings, some of the names of foods familiar to everyone since childhood come from exotic sources: chokolate (from Nahuatl through Spanish and French) tea (from Amoic Chinese) tomato (from Nahuatl, through Spanish) chutney, kedgeree (from Hindi) ketchup ( from Cantonese Chinese: "tomato juice") kebab (from Arabic) mango (from Tamil, via Portuguese)
One of the roots cited as evidence for the theory of distant kinship between Indo-European, Uralic and other language families is the root madw- ("honey" - "honey", which manifests itself in the English word "mead", denoting a drink made from honey): Sanskrit Russian Hungarian Tamil Etruscan (Indoic- (Indoic- (Uralic) (Drawi- (not Classical) Ropean) Dia) fitted) madhu med mez mattu ma.
Despite the fact that the similarity between these words is striking, they could easily be borrowed, in which case the forms cannot serve as proof of the existence of a genetic relationship between languages.

Learn more

• 
  How many cherries on a tree
• 
  How to take care of an umbrella tree
• 
  How to preserve a tree stump
• 
  How to watch one tree hill for free
• 
  How many cherry blossom trees are in washington dc
• 
  How to treat oak tree diseases
• 
  How to take care bonsai money tree
• 
  How to check your family tree
• 
  How to cascade ribbon on christmas tree
• 
  How to create fake snow for christmas tree
• 
  How fast do pink dogwood trees grow